Educational Theorists and Administration
ECE612: Administration--Early Childhood Education Programs
Teri Engleman
September 26, 2011
Administrators in early education programs need to familiarize themselves with theorists responsible for major contributions to the field. Theorists like Erik Erikson, Maria Montessori and Jean Piaget developed influential concepts that shaped early education into what it is today. Based on their philosophies of education, missions and visions as educators, Erikson, Montessori and Piaget developed developmental stages and/or teaching strategies that coincided with their beliefs and preferences. Other important factors within the early education setting include program layout, program materials and environment. Administrators need to understand their program’s mission and vision to effectively support instruction to meet its goals.
Within the educational field, it is impossible to avoid the influential theorists when designing a program. Theorists like Erickson, Montessori, and Piaget made huge contributions to the field and ultimately shaped current program environments, curricula and practices. As an educator it is important to let your personal philosophy shape your teaching methods while guiding children through the stages of development.
Erik Erickson is widely known for his theory of psychosocial stages of development. He believed that a child’s personality developed over several stages and influenced by social experiences and culture. His first psychosocial stage is basic trust vs. basic mistrust this spans from birth to one year of age. Infants develop a sense of trust from the immediate caregiver(s). This sense of trust ensures them the world is good. Mistrust occurs when children are not assured of the world being good or are assured too late. A significant example would be an infant trusting and forming an attachment to the mother.
Erikson’s second stage is autonomy vs. shame and doubt, which spans from two to three years of age. This is the time when a child develops personal control, as in bodily functions, which fosters independence. During this stage “they begin to assert their growing motor, language, and cognitive abilities” (Essa 2003, p. 119). When children do not accomplish this sense of independence they experience shame and doubt. This is commonly seen in toddler classrooms that are working on potty training. When children begin to master those skills they feel good about their abilities.
Erikson’s third psychosocial stage is initiative vs. guilt, which spans four to five years of age. In this stage the healthy developing child learns to imagine and broaden skills through active play. The child will also learn to cooperate with others and lead as well as follow. This is the time for parents to identify boundaries and consequences for behaviors which will help the child develop self-control.
Fourth is the stage of industry (competence) vs. inferiority, which spans six to twelve years of age. During these years, children acquire cultural values and skills and assimilate with what is learned in school. This is the time when children like to plan, carry out and complete projects. They develop habits of workmanship and social norms. If they do not develop these skills, they settle for mediocrity and feel inferior. Parents should find a good balance of praise and discipline for their children, and even expose them to humility, in order to establish a good foundation with the child (Essa 2003).
The last stage that applies to children is the fifth stage identity vs. role confusion, which spans thirteen to eighteen years of age. During these years, children are developing an understanding of themselves in regards to puberty. They come to develop a sense of self based on sexual identity and occupational identity. Children should explore their sexuality and be comfortable in their own skin and accept themselves for who they are. Without a chance to explore these roles, children develop confusion about their future roles.
The final three stages of Erikson’s psychosocial stages include intimacy vs. isolation – nineteen to twenty-five years of age, generatively vs. stagnation- twenty-six to forty years of age, and finally ego integrity vs. despair- forty-one years of age and up. These are crucial stages individuals must experience through adulthood. According to Erikson, a child’s environment and how he/she responds to the environment influences development. This concept is seen within the classroom when children are offered developmentally appropriate materials to explore with. If the environment encourages exploration, children will explore; if not they will not explore.
Maria Montessori developed Casa dei Bambini, a program for teaching children with cognitive delays. She took in children who were labeled as incapable of learning. Through observing how children learned, Montessori came to believe that intelligence was not fixed, rather a source that could be stimulated through experiences. She believed that with an inherent desire to explore and understand the world children’s independence and productivity were to be valued. In the Montessori classroom, teachers do not directly instruct students, instead they guide to explore and expand knowledge.
A major characteristic of the Montessori program is the child sized learning environment. The classrooms are mixed in ages and encourage children to learn by observing and doing. With an orderly environment, the Montessori classroom is meant to help children focus on learning and develop concentration. Within these classrooms one would find independent students working with self-correcting materials. Activities are purposeful and, with the use of sequential learning materials, cumulative.
The Montessori environment exposes children to more practical everyday life skills. The curriculum also teaches the children academic skills that are organized for individual learning as opposed to the traditional group interaction. Montessori believed that children should be taught concepts that are of interest to them and so, through a carefully prepared environment, she was able to teach formal skills through concepts that interested the individual student (Bruno 2009). Each child is actively involved in the learning process and experience subjects first hand. Teachers do not directly instruct students, instead they guide to explore and expand knowledge. In the Montessori classroom concentration is respected so teachers and students alike are expected not to interrupt others.
The Montessori method has been historically controversial. Most sites do not promote social interaction or the development of creativity. As a result this method remains separate from other educational approaches. According to Carolyn Pope Edwards (2007), in a Montessori program the school community, including the parents, “work together to open the children to the integration of body, mind, emotions, and spirit that is the basis of holistic peace education” (p. 2). The concept of the child sized learning environment, however, has been integrated into most childcare programs today.
Lastly, Piaget changed they way educators viewed cognitive development. As one of the most well known theorists in early childhood education, Piaget’s theory of cognitive development outlines four stages of cognitive development and the typical behaviors exhibited during each stage. “Piaget’s theory suggests that teachers should recognize the abilities and limits at each stage and provide appropriate learning activities” (Sadker & Zittleman, 2007, p. 155). The stages of cognitive development include: sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operations and formal operational stage.
The sensorimotor stage spans from birth to two years. During this time infants gather their knowledge of the world from sensory and motor skills. To promote development during this stage, hands-on materials that stimulate a baby’s senses are most effective. In a developmentally appropriate infant classroom, one could expect to find materials including, but not limited to: mobiles, mirrors, cuddle toys, grasping toys, balls, puzzles, push and pull toys, soft blocks and activity toys. These materials are interesting to look at, safe to mouth, easy to grasp and fun to manipulate which encourages exploration and as a result, development.
The preoperational stage spans from two years to seven years of age. Children learn to use symbols to represent aspects of the world only through his/her perspective. They begin to not only organize but understand their surroundings through language and mental images. This is the stage where early literacy skills must be introduced. A developmentally appropriate classroom meeting the needs of this age group would be a print rich environment, and would incorporate literacy skills including: name writing, alphabet knowledge, beginning sound awareness, print and word awareness, rhyme awareness, and nursery rhyme awareness. As mentioned before, this is also a crucial time where mental concepts develop as well. A lot of these concepts are seen during play; imaginative play offers opportunities for children to create mental representations of the world in which they live.
The next stage, concrete operations, spans from seven years to eleven years of age. During this time children learn to understand and apply logical operations and experiences to everyday life. Skills like problem solving, classification, compare and contrast, seriation, patterning and number concepts evolve during this stage. A developmentally appropriate classroom would utilize materials like file folder games, counting bears, sequencing puzzles, etc. to reinforce these skills. Another effective way to teach some of these skills is through cooking activities. These activities allow room for mistakes but still teach these concepts.
The final stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory is the formal operations stage, spans from eleven years to fifteen years of age and continues through adulthood. At this stage, children come into the highest level of reasoning and abstract thinking. This is when children do not have to apply their theory, rather assess the facts and form an answer. Incorporating this stage in the classroom would require activities in which students have to predict the consequences of their actions. An appropriate example would be to discuss what will happen when students do not complete and submit their homework. These discussions can progress to more serious topics such as drinking and driving and unprotected sex. An important part of this strategy, however, would be to include parent involvement to help reinforce the knowledge gained throughout the activities.
After researching the three theorists, it is clear that there are similarities and differences amongst their theories. Each theorist has an identifying concept that separates them from the others. Montessori emphasized the child-sized learning environment. Freud emphasized sexual and aggressive drives. Erikson is well known for his emotional development concepts. Freud was Erikson’s predecessor so their theories are virtually the same through Erikson’s first five stages; the only difference is Erikson continues into adulthood. Montessori’s theory did not consist of stages through which children progressed rather, their learning experiences were linked to play. Erikson also contributed play to the process of learning in a child’s development. Piaget and Montessori express belief in exploration of the environment are an effective learning concept.
The mission of my program is to provide quality programs to children and their families. Through play and exploration the whole child is developed. Our classrooms reflect this belief and offer opportunities for growth in all areas of development at their individual pace. We believe that within the learning environment, activities should be balanced between teacher initiated and child initiated. With Knowledgeable and experienced staff we strive to provide quality education to all of our children. We will meet parents’ need for their children to grown and learn to there greatest potential in a safe and stimulating environment. With our open door policy, parents are welcome and encouraged to participate and interact with their children any time.
The vision of my program will provide a nurturing learning experience that benefits the whole child to the best of our ability. In a natural learning environment, students will be motivated by not only the teachers but their peers as well, all while developing a positive self-esteem.
These mission and vision statements reflect Montessori’s and Erikson’s theories by emphasizing environment, play and exploration as integral parts of the learning process. As all three theorists pointed out, the environment truly does affect a child’s learning.
The preschool classroom needs to be designed to prepare four through five year old Pre-K children for kindergarten through enhancing social-emotional, language, cognitive, and physical development. The classroom should utilize “ready-to-learn” activities in which children initiate and engage in hands-on learning experiences in an atmosphere that fosters divergent thinking and creative problem solving (Berk 2008, p. 473). There should also be a balance of relevant and developmentally appropriate child-initiated and teacher directed activities within the classroom. The focus should be on intellectual growth and cognitive stimulation, emotional security, social adjustment, physical well-being, creativity, and safety. When a curriculum is developed and implemented properly it not only enhances children’s learning experiences but also the teachers’ professional repertoire (Discoveries and Adventures 2007). A large amount of time is spent within the classroom so it is essential that the room be attractive, inviting, and comfortable. Natural light should be utilized whenever possible. The classroom should include things a child would recognize from home like flowers, curtains, refrigerator magnets, etc. Incorporating living things is also key to a successful classroom.
The classroom is affected by the physical arrangement of materials and furniture as well as routines and schedules. Within the classroom, teachers are expected to plan according to space. Interest centers need to be developed to offer students choices in the activities they explore. Each learning center should be clearly defined to keep children focused and ease classroom organization. Areas needing water for play or clean up should be near a water source, while messy areas should be on easy to clean surfaces. Loud learning centers like blocks should be kept separate from quiet learning centers such as library.
All materials within the classroom should be durable and safe along with attractive and plentiful. When materials are easily within reach children are more likely to notice and use them. Self correcting materials offer valuable learning experiences for children. “Appropriate equipment allows the staff to focus on the essentials of their work as they provide an excellent early childhood program” (Sciarra & Dorsey, 2007, p. 220). Incorporating culturally diverse materials is vital to a successful learning environment. Children who see items that reflect their culture develop a sense of belonging.
Furniture within the classroom needs to be child size and shelving should be spacious. All shelves should be labeled to identify where items belong to reduce the need for adults during clean up (Eliason & Jenkins 2008, p. 24). Having a designated place for everything promotes independence through consistency and predictability (Dodge, Colker & Heroman 2002, p. 65). Children are more likely to take responsibility for the materials and develop a sense of ownership when shelves and containers are labeled.
Another important piece of any classroom is technology. Technology “can enhance learning and should be considered a necessary piece of equipment…” (Kostelnik, et al., 2011, p. 321). Technology is not just limited to computers; teachers can utilize CD/cassette players for books on tape, calculators for number recognition and reinforcement, and in some cases cameras for dramatic play. Technology can be used for assessment through observation or with the use of programs created to assess skill levels like the hatch computers which are designed to be an interactive kindergarten prep-like program. According to Haugland & Shade (1990), “Developmentally appropriate software engages children in creative play, mastery learning, problem solving, and conversation. The children control the pacing and the action. They can repeat a process or activity as often as they like and experiment with variations” (as cited in Technology and Young 1996, p. 2).
As far as curriculum selection, I believe the integrated curriculum works best. The fact that subjects can tie together and children are able to recognize those connections proves to be valuable. I use the integrated curriculum and have noticed that children enjoy learning about the topic in a variety of ways, including exploration. This process proves to be more important than the information. With this type of curriculum, children learn through relevant and meaningful real-world experiences (Eliason & Jenkins 2008, p. 75). I truly believe in teachable moments and act on them whenever they arise; the integrated curriculum allows the flexibility to do just that. This curriculum allows children to learn by doing- which ties in with the belief in the importance of play. When children can take the information they are learning and connect it to life the experience is more interesting, exciting and satisfying (Feeney et al. 2010, 357).
The Creative Curriculum is an appropriate selection because it is nationally recognized for its comprehensive and extensively researched model. This curriculum helps teachers effectively plan and implement a developmentally appropriate program that supports active learning and “promotes children's progress in all areas of development” (Teaching Strategies 2009, p. 1). The curriculum I would use was developed under the guidelines of The Creative Curriculum. This integrated curriculum approach is used at most preschools today, with the room divided into areas and centers. This philosophy of curriculum works well for a mixed age group with a variety of developmental levels. To present learning challenges, the teacher is expected to scaffold the learning activities for each area daily.
The curriculum I am referring to is composed of activities that promote a positive attitude towards learning, increase sensory awareness, build a positive self-concept, teach independence, foster relationships, encourage creativity, and develop muscular control and coordination. It revolves around monthly themes based on developmentally appropriate content for four and five year old children. These themes explore the world beginning with that which is familiar, then moving onto topics that must be physically experienced. Each theme is strengthened by cumulative sub-themes that offer more in depth insight to each topic of study. Each month also has a designated story that ties into the theme as well as nursery rhyme.
Within each lesson the teacher can accomplish three goals: 1.) introduce new materials or materials children show little interest in, 2.) introduce or reinforce skills, and 3.) pursue an interest of one or more of the children in the group (Discoveries and Adventures 2007, p. 17). Lessons need to be designed so that activities are open-ended; if the teacher selects materials the children should be free to use them in whatever way. This challenging task builds on individual discoveries. These are opportunities that support learning and allow children to explore the curriculum designed lessons.
Another key element to a successful center program is the philosophy of the program. It is crucial to establish a vision, mission and philosophy statement and integrate it within the development of a program. I believe that the purpose of education is to, for lack of better terms, “shape tomorrow’s future.” With the proper education children can grow to become prominent figures in society, and work in a field that is beneficial to the community. Another purpose of education is to help prevent mistakes. In my opinion, if you are properly informed of the appropriate way to behave as well as the consequences for bad behavior, then you are more likely to try to avoid messing up. Education is a great way to teach responsibility. Children learn early on that throughout life there will be expectations to meet. As a teacher, it is my responsibility to set the example. Children respect their teacher and look up to and view him/her as a role model. A good teacher does not automatically judge the children and label them, he/she would notice characteristics and look into the child’s background and try to determine the underlying cause(s). Lastly, an important teaching attribute is to teach by quality, not quantity.
With the knowledge gained from this research, I am more aware of my beliefs in education. I better understand the reasons for my methods in the classroom and my reasoning behind those methods. I can see now my philosophy of education is a combination of the three theories. With this knowledge I can further research those theorists and their philosophies to better apply the concepts.
In conclusion to this research, it is obvious that early education theorists have had an influential effect on education. Erikson, Montessori and Piaget are prime examples of the impact theorists have on education; without Montessori we might not have adopted the concept of the child-size environment. Through hands on experiences, children are better able to learn and retain knowledge because these activities involve the senses. Each important skill learned during the early years sets the foundation for future development. Teachers need to be willing to guide children through the learning process. With a sensitive and flexible program, teachers can adapt daily plans around active learning. With consideration of my philosophy I agree with the theories of Erikson, Montessori and Piaget when they stress the importance of play in learning. With play comes exploration, and exploration shapes the brain.
References
Berk, L. E., (2008). Infants and Children (6th ed.). Boston
Bruno, H. E,(2009). Leading On Purpose (First Edition).Higher Education, Boston , Mass.
Discoveries and Adventures (2007) Norfolk , VA : YMCA of South Hampton Roads
Dodge, D., Colker, L., & Heroman, C. (2002).The Creative Curriculum for Preschool, (4th ed.) Washington D.C.
Edwards, C. P. (2007) Three Approaches from Europe : Waldorf, Montessori, and Reggio Emilia. Retrieved 24 September 2010 from: http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4n1/edwards.html
Eliason, C. F., Jenkins, L. (2008). A Practical Guide to Early Childhood Curriculum (8th edition). New Jersey
Essa, E. (2003). Introduction to Early Childhood Education (4th edition) New York
Feeney, S., Moravcik, E., Nolte, S., & Chritensen, D. (2010) Who Am I in the Lives of Children? (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River
Kostelnik, M., Soderman, A., & Whiren, A. (2011). Developmentally appropriate curriculum: Best practices in Early Childhood Education (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River
Sadker, D.M., & Zittleman, K.R. (2007). Teachers, Schools, and Society: A Brief Introduction to Education [with CD and Reader]. New York , NY
Sciarra, D. & Dorsey, A. (2007). Developing and Administering a Child Care and Education Program. (6th ed.). Thomson Delmar Learning: Clifton Park , NY
Technology and Young Children—Ages 3 through 8 (1996). Retrieved 24 September 2011 from: http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/PSTECH98.PDF
Teaching Strategies (2009). The Creative Curriculum. Retrieved 24 September 2011 from: http://www.teachingstrategies.com/page/CCPS_Overview.cfm
